How to do things without performative verbs

How to do things without performative verbs

The most important reason for the collapse of Austin's performative hypothesis was the realization that Austin had ( at least tacitly) equated 'doing things with word's with the existence of a corresponding performative verb. This is clearly erroneous: there are many acts performed using language where it would be impossible, extremerly odd or very unusual to use a performative verb. Consider those acts for which English has no performative verb, such as 'letting the cat out of the bag', incrinating oneself, putting one's foot in it,'treading on someone's corns'. People do not say: I hereby let the cat out of the bag, I hereby tread on your corns, and yet these are (unfortunately) very common actions performed by means of languag. Consider the following example:

Notice on the door of a second-hand furniture shop. The last element had been added in handwriting in very large letters

It is clear what this notice is doing: it is strongly discouragging casual passers-by from dropping into the shop. There would be no way of accomplishing this act using a performative, as no such performative exists in English (and I doubt whether it exists in any other language). Language ids frequaently used to insult, but (outside surrealist cornedy) it would be impossible to say: I (hereby) insult you! We readily use language to invite, but in English it is not usual to use the words I invite you to perform the act of inviting. And the same is true for many extremely common acts: offering, hinting, boasting, devulging, expressing an opinion, are all instance of acts for which it would be most odd to use a performative verb (but note that in reporting the act you would readliy say: She invite me..., He hinted that..., They boasted that...). There are literally hundreds of examples like this. It was in the light of counter-examples of this kind that in chapter six of How to do things with words, Austin briefly introduced a distinction between primary performatives (which, following Levinson 1983 I shall call explicit performatives) and implicit performatives.

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Pragmatics

What is Pragmatics?

Defining Pragmatics

In the early 1980, when it first becarne, common to discuss pragmatics in general textbooks on lingistics, the most common definition of pragmatics were: meaning in use or meaning in context. Although these definitions are accurate enough and perfectly adequate as a starting point, they are too general for our purposes-for example, there are aspects of semantics, particularly semantics of the type develope since the late 1980s, which could well come under the headings of meaning in use or meaning in context. More up-to-date textbooks tend to fall into one of two camps-those who equate pragmatics with speaker meaning and those who equate it with utterance interpretation (they do not necessarily use these terms explicitly). Cetainly each of these definitions captures something of the work now undertaken under the heading of pragmatics, but neither of them is entirely satisfactory. Moreover, they each represent radically different approaches to the sub-discipline of pragmatics. The term speaker meaning tends to be favoured by writers who take a broadly social' View of the discipline; it puts the focus of attention firmly on the producer of the message, but at the same time obscures the fact that the process of interpreting what we hear involves moving between several levels of meaning. The final definition (utterance interpretation), which is favod red by those who take a broadly cognitive approach, avoids this fault, but at the cost of focusing too much on the receiver of the message, which in practice means largely ignoring the social constraitns on utterance production. I am not going to undertake an exhaustive discussion of the relative advantages and disadven-tages of the two competing aproaches just now-this task will be done at appropriate points in later chapters. But we can begin to understand the differences between the two approaches if we examine what is meant by levels of meaning. The first level is that of abstract meaning; we move from abstract meaning to contextual meaning (also called utterance meaning) by assigning sense and/or reference to a word, phares or sentence. The third level of meaning is reached when we consider the speaker's intention, known as the force of an utterance. We shall begin by looking at each of these levels in turn.

Utterence meaning: the first level of speaker meaning

When in interaction we have resolved all the ambiguities of sense, reference and structure-when we have moved from abstract meaning (what a particular sentence could mean in theory) to what the speaker actually does mean by these words on this particular occasion-we have arrived at contextual meaning or utterance meaning. Utterance meaning can be defined as'a sentence-context pairing' (Gazdar 1979) and is the first component of speaker meaning.

Importance of utterance meaning

Now, you my feel, and with some justifikation, that (except, of course, for story book detectives deciphering baffling clues!) in eceryday interaction people do not normally go around straining their interpretative faculties trying to determine sense and reference. Although it is certainly the case that the majority of sentences, taken our of context, are, at least from the point of view of the hearer, potentially multiply ambiguous, in real life we rarely have difficulty in interpreting them correctly in context. In fact, more often than not, we fail to notice ambiguities of sense and refence at all, unless some misunderstanding occurs or unless, as in jokes or word-play, our attention is deliberately drawn to their existence. But, as we have already seen with the example of the Demjanjuk trial, problems rally do occur in assigning sense and reference and there are cases where correctly assigning sense and reference can, quite literally, be a matter of life and death. An example of this can be found in the transcript of a controversial English murder trial, which was held in 1952. A yputh of nineteen, Derek Bentley, was changerd jointly with a sixteen-year-old, Chirstopher Craig, with having committed the then capital offence of murdering a police officer, It was never disputed that it was Craig who fired the fatal shot; Bentley was unarmed and had, in fact, already been caught and was being restrained by a policemant at the time the shot was fired. The case againts Bentley hinged on the allegation that he had shouted, Let, him have it, Chris! At Bentley's trial, the prosecution argued that this meant Shoot the policeman, which in turn was construed as deliberate incitement to murder'. An alternative interpretation proposed later in Bantley's defence was that defence was that it referred to the gun, him referred to the police officer and that far from telling Craig to shoot his pursuer, Bentley was recomending Craig to hand over the gun. This second interpretation was rejected by the court and Bentley was found guilty and hanged. Craig who had actually fired the shot, was still a minor and was sentenced only to youth custody. It is generally true that law courts (at least in Britain) exahibit an extreme reluctance to take account of anything other than the dictionary meaning of particular expressions. A particular source of irritation to me is the use of so-called expert witnesses' in legal cases involving the use of obscence or abusive (often racist) language. In such cases the defence invariably bring in to court some cobwebby philologist who will testify, for example, that to shout Bollocks! is not offensive because it 'means' little balls. It seems that the only linguistic evidence admissible in these cases is the etymology of a word or phrase (and frequently the etymology is wholly spurious)- no account is taken of the circum stances in which the word is used nor of the speaker's intention in uttering it. In another court case, the defendant was charged with four offences againts the owner of a Chinese restaurant. One was that he had called the restaurant owner a Chinky bastard, but this charge was dismissed because an 'expert' testified that the expression 'meant' wandering parentless child travelling through the countryside in the Ching Dynasty and was in no way offnsive. Courts seem incaple of taking on board the fact that the original lexical meaning of an expression is not a good guide to the speaker's intention in employing that expression.

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Tips and Tricks For Making Vocabulary Stick

Tips and Tricks For Making Vocabulary Stick

Here is a quick list of the ways you can make the words in this book your own. That ability to make new words "stick" what we mean  by "word power". We hope you'll try out all of these trick and see which ones help you best. Then use them powerfully!

• Reading helps you figure out basically what a word means from its context. Remember, though, it's he subtleties that count when speaking or writing. Context does not convey the full scope of meaning, and in fact can be misleading. What if the word is being used sarcastically?Example: " Well," James eyed Mariss's dress with disapproval."Isn't that just sublime."
• Mnemonics help as global hints to the meaning of a word, and are often easier to remember than the definition ((or fact) itself. This is partly because they have entertainment value. Many students are taught to remember the difference between the word principle and principal by being  told,"The principal is your pal." This of course strikes most kids as absurd, which helps them remember, and gets us to our next point.
• Absurd immagery (picture) can help you remember meanings. Take the word flout: to disregard with disrespect. We imagine a strictly religious family Thanksgiving dinner where a floozy (FL) is being told to get out (OUT), for in that traditional family world, no one respects a floozy. Whenever your mind gives you a picture, you will likely remember the word. Your pictures and association will stay with you. This is why this book will not give any of those kinds of associations. They wouldn't work. The point is for you to make up picture from your own experience.
• Etymology is a solid way to figure aout a word. They etymology of a word is its root. Take PED (foot) for instance. PEDal, PEDestrian, exPEDite. These words all have something to do with the foot. All these words have to do with getting somewhere.
• Writing, the act of physically putting the word down on paper, helps to solidify it in a person's mind. Writing the word helps our minds remember. Use flash cards. Use bright markers. Write down the word and its defenition. Put it in a sentence. Read it over. Tes your self. Take out the cards that give you trouble. Keep writing and practicing to build your word power.
• Tongue twisters are childish games that can imprint the meanings of words into grown-up brains. Remember that old one, "Peter Piper Picked a peck of pickled peppers"? You may not know the Word peck, but when you say the tongue twister, it is obvious that peck is a quantity, a measurement. As you read the words in each lesson of this book, you can make up your own tongue twisters with the words, for they almost always use the same letter of the alphabet. For example, Lesson 12 has almost all M words: Morose Mavis made herself into a martyr." Better a mercenary maverick,"she moaned. This may not have the zing of Mother Goose, But it will get you through to the meanings.

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Subject and Predicate

Each complete sentences (sentences What can be Stand Alone) has a Subject and Predicate .What is the subject of discussion hearts Or who Or clause A sentence while the predicate describes. Something About subject while the subject can be form of orangutans, Animals, Objects, as well as an abstract concept .

Subject and Predicate

The subject and predicate of a sentence should reflect what one is talking about and what one is saying about it. Metaphorically, the subject names the place in memory where the propositions being conveyed are to be stored. Connie owns a horse is a fact to be stored about Connie, while The horse is connie's is a fact to be stored about the horse. Virtually every fact ean be expressed in more than one way, and so speakers are always forced to decide on subject and predicate. All other things being equat, however, they will select the given information, the frame or both , as subject. And when these factors do not apply, they will select the agent of the action (saying connie bought the horse in preference to The horse was bought by Connie) or the experiencer (sayiing Connie saw the house in preference to The house was seen by Connie). How they make these decisions, however, is not  at all clear. There are two different ways to view the choices of subject and predicate, given and new information, and frame and insert. In the context of speakers and listeners, subject-predicate and frame-insert are speaker oriented and given-new is listener oriented. Speakers place what they want to talk about as subject and state the framework they want to place it in as frame. But at the same time they place what they judged the listener already know as given information and what the listeners don't yet know as  new. These orientations are quite distinct. Viewed as elements in an ongoing discourse, one the other hand, subject-predicate and frame-insert are forward looking, while given-new is backward looking Subject and predicate reveal the direction speakers are expecting to go in the discourse, and frame and insert, the framework within which they are going to talk. These tell listeners what to pay attention to. Given and new information, in constrast, are adjustment speakers must make to what has already been said, since the given information must refer directly or inderectly to known material and they can be certain that what has been said before is known. Although there is little hard evidence on these decisions, participants in spontaneous conversations appear to make these selections with considerable care. They way stumble and hesitate in talking, but they pay close attention to the thematic choices they make. Tannenbaum and Williams (1968) have demonstrated how important these thematic distinctions are in the production of sentences. In their study people were shown a picture and asked to describe it as quickly as possible in either an active or a passive sentence. For example, they were shown a picture of a train hitting a car. In the upper left-hand corner of the picture there was either an A or a P. They were to produce 6 if there was an A and 7 if there was a P:
        6. The train  is hitting the car
        7. The car is being hit by train.
Before people were shown this picture,however, rhey red a preamble, a short paragraph, that was about trains and their importance, about cars and their function and importance, or about neither. Schematically, there were three types of preamble: (A) about trains, (B) about cars, (C)neutral. The times people took to produce the complete sentences suggest that one or more oh the three thematic distinctions affect speed of sentence production. Sentence 6 was fastest for Problem A, next fastest for Preamble C, and slowest for Preamble B. On the other hand, 7 was fastest for preamble B, next fastest for preamble C, and slowest for preamble A. That is, it was easiest to produce a sentence whose subject, frame, and given information referred back to the preamble. Apparently, the preamble sets up the theme of the discourse and states what is known. The next sentence, to be produced quickly, has to carry on the theme with the subject and frame and refer back to what is known with the given information. It is imposible to tell, however, how many and which ones of the there thematic function were critical. In sum, the planning of an individual sentence is not easy. Speakers have to decide on the propositional content, illocutionary contet, and thematic structure of what they want to say and then select a sentence to fit. Imagine they have made the following choices:
          Propositional contet: Hit (Harry, Bill)= S
          Speech act: I request you to tell me whether S is true.
         Thematic structure: Harry is subject and frame; X hit Bill is given
Taken together, these choices lead to Did Harry hit Bill? or Was it Harry who hit Bill? The difficult problem, however, is how to make the three selections in the first place. It is fairly clear what considerations speakers must pay attention to, but it is far from clear what mental processes are involved or how the final decisions is arrived at. The study of sentence planning has barely begun.

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Direct and Indirect Speech Acts

My friends certainly never find Directa and Indirect in a conversation ? but there are still many who do not understand that it is Direct and indirect speech . In the language of the word indonesiadirect and indirect direct and indirect sentences . For a clearer explanation and therefore we discuss articles Direct and Indirect Speech Acts.

Direct and Indirect Speech Acts

One speakers have decided on a particular speech act, they have to decide what form it should take. In asking whether or not John is there, they could select Is John there?., Coud you tell me if John is there?, Please let me know whether or not John is there, or one of many other possible forms. One basis on which they make the selection is efficiency. Some forms are shorter and less cumbersome than others. A more usual basis, however, is interpretation. The indirect ways of expressing a speech act usually carry slightly different interpretations. The varienties of indirect requests provide a good illustration. They differ mainly in their politeness:

1. Open the door
2. I would like you to open the door
3. Can you open the door?
4. Would you mind opening the door?
5. May I ask you whether or not you mind opening the door?

These tun the gamut of politeness from 1, wich is normally rude and authoritarian, to 5, which is asually overly polite. R. Lakoff (1973b) has argued that his variation comes about from two rules of politeness:

             Rule 1 : Don't impose.

             Rule 2 : Give options.

Sentence 1 is the most imposing and therefore the last polite. Because it doesn't give options, it assummes the speaker has considerable authourity over the listener. Sentence 2 gives the listener the option of whether or not to please the speaker. That isn't very much of an option, and so it too imposes, though not as much as 1. As a question, 3 gives and explicit option, for the listener can answer yes or no to the question about the possibility of opening the door. It assumes little outhority, imposes very little, and is therefore more polite than 1 or 2. Sentence 4 goes one step beyong 3 and gives the listener the option of saying whether or not opening the door would be an imposition. And 5 is ultra polite, for it requests permission even to ask the listener whether or not opening the door would be an imposition. So to choose among 1 through 5, speakers have to decide on several questions. What is their authority relative to the listener? Do they want to be rude or polite, and if so, to what degree? Should they give options? In an emergency, as during a fire, they wouldn't want to give options and would always yell Open the door. Once again, however, although it it possible to spell out the conditions process by which they make that selection.

Thematic structure

The third set of options speakers have open to them are concerned with thematic structure. They have to decide what is to be subject and predicat, what is to be given information and new information, and what is to be frame and insert. Recall that subject and predicate specify what is being talked about and what is being said about it. Given and new information specify what the listener is expected to be able to identify uniquely and what he doesn't yet know. Frame and insert specify the framework of the utterance and its contents. Normally these three pairs of functions roughly coincide. What is being talked about is known to the listener, as is the setting within which the predicate and new in formation are placed. Nevertheless, they can be separated. The problem speakers have to solve is wich options they should select to further their aims.

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Sentence Plans

Sentence Plans

In planning a sentence, a speaker has many options. As described in Chapter 1, these fall into three categoties: propositional content, illocutionary contet, and thematic structure. First, what states or events does the speaker want to talk about?  A boy hitting a ball, a dinosaur romping through swamps, Julia discovering a virus? These come under the heading of propostional contet. Second how does he want to deal with it? Does he want to make a assertion, a request, a promise, or what?  This is question of illocutionary contet, and reflects the, speech act the speaker intends to make. Third, what does the speaker want as subject, what does he think the listener does and does not know, and what framework does he want to set his utterance in? These are questions that have to do with thematic structure. The speaker must decide on all three aspects before he can compose a sentence. Planning sentence-deciding on these three aspects-requires problem solving that is just as complicated as planning discourse. The problem to be solved remains the same: what linguistic devices should speakers select to have the intended effect on the listener? But speakers have new considerations to take into account. These include: How are states and events to be conceived of? What are their precise intentions in uttering a sentence at this time? And how much can they assume the listener knows of what is being talked about ? the problems encountered by speakers are different for propositional contet, illocutionary contet, and thematic structure, and so they will be taken up separately.

Propositional Contet

At the core of the sentence to be planned are its propositions-units of meaning that reflect the ideas speakers want to express. Before speakers can assert, ask questions, promise, or commad, they have to something to assert, ask questions, promise, or commad about. An apartment description, for example, might break down into a series of propositions description, for example, might break down into a series of propositions such as these:

          Your enter the door

          The door is at the front

          The bedroom is left oh the hallway

and so on. Before these unadorned propositions can be realized as sentences they must be usefully combined and given illocutionary contet and thematic structure. The result might be an assertion, You are entering the front door, or a request, Enter the front door. And the result can very in frame and insert, as in A bedroom is on the left versus On the left is a bedroom.

Experiential Chunking

The first problem that speakers have to solve might be called the problem of experiential chunking, a problem alluded to in discourse plans. Imagine that Charlotte has just watched a movie clip of a knight slaying a dragon and is asked to describe it. In planning this short discourse, she has to decide on the level content, order, and relations of her description. The propositions underlying her description might be these:

          The knight watched the dargon. The knight approached the dragon. The knight picked up asword. The knight swung the sword. The sword pierecd the dragon. The dragon fell. The dragon died.

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Perception Of Continous Speech

Perception Of Continous Speech

Speech normally occurs in conversations with meaning and substance, and people listen for the massage, not the sounds. This is quite unlike  the situations just reviewed in wich people identified single syllables heard in isolation for sound rather than massage. This disparity should make us wary. Are the theories of isolated speech sounds adequate for continuous speech? The answer turns out to be no. Then what is the relation between these two types of perception? One possibility is that the perception of continuous speech use  all the processes of the perception of isolated speech sounds and then some. A more troublesome passibility is that the two kinds of perception are in certain ways fundamentally different. Althought the verdict is not yet in, the second of these two possibilities is still too real to dismiss out of hand. Consider the hypothesis that the perception of continuous speech is identical to the perception of isolated speech sound. This hypothesis is demolished by some of the earliest work on speech perception. G miller, Heise, and Lichten (1951) had people try to identify words in various amounts of white noise. The words were presented to some people in five-word sentences were identified more accurately. When the speech and noise were equally loud, for example, the difference amounted to 70 percent versus 40 percent words correctly identifed. Miler and his colleagues atributed this difference to the greater predictability of the words in sentences where syntactic and semantic constrints helped people rule out what words could occur where. As further evidence for this view, they showed that people  were much more accurate in identifying words from a known list of 2,4, or 8 words than from a know list of 32, 256, or 100 words. The smaller the list, the more predictable the words, and the more predictable the words, the more accurately they were heard and identified. Later G Miller and Isard (1963) demonstrated that syntax and semanties make separate contributions to the identifications to the identification of words in sentences. They had people listen to three different types of sentences:

1. Grammatical sentences, like Accidents kill motorist on the hoghways.
2. Anomalous sentences, like Accidents carry honey between the house.
3. Ungrammatical strings, like Around accidents country honey the shoot.

Note that grammatical sentences adhere to both syntactic and semantic constraints, anomalous sentences to constrains on word order but not meaning, and ugrammatical strings to neither. The sentences were specially constructed so that the same words occurred in all three types of sentences equally often. No matter what the level of noise in which the sentences were heard, people were most accurate on grammatical sentences, a little less accurate on anomalous sentences, and least accurate on ugrammatical strings. Once again, the more predictable the word, the more often it was identified correctly.

The active view of speech perception

How are these findings so to be accounted for? There are two models one might turn to, the active and the passive. In actually they lie at the ends of a continuun of models. Under the simplest passive model listeners try to identify each word as if it were an isolated word, and whenever they fail, the guess. The  more predictable the word is from syntax and meaning, the more likely they are to guess it correctly. Under this view, listeners try to identify each word as if it were an isolated word, and whenever they fail, the guess. The more predictable the word is from syntax and meaning, the more likely the are to guess it correctly. Under this view, listeners make use of word predictability, not in the actual perception of the words, but only in their guesses when their perception has failed. The problem with this model is that listeners do much better than it predicts they should (see G. Millerand isard, 1963). Listeners could not gouess correctly often enough to identify sentences as accuratelly as they do. The active end of the continuum has more appeal. Under the active view listeners use linguistic constraints in the actual perception of the sentence. It is as if they listen for some words or phrases and not others, as if they are optimally ready to perceive some sounds and not others. The analysis by synthesis model is one active model of speach perception. Listeners synthesize words to match what they heard and succed when they synthesize words to match what they hear and succed when they synthisize a wor that truly matches. Linguistic contraints  aid his process by norrowing down what they synthrsize. They thereby come up with the correct match more often. The appeal of the active view is that it accounts quite naturally for a series of quite. The appeal of the active view is that it accounts quite naturally for a series of quite extraordinary perceptual phenomena.

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Tying Sentences To Context

Tying Senteces To Context

Listeners are especially anxious to make sense of a sentence in the circumstances they are in at the time. From the cooperative principle they assume that the speaker has made his utterarance relevant to the ongoing discourse-for example,that the speaker has used definited noun phrases like the general to refer to entities they know. They can therefore use this strategy:

           Strategi 10: Look for definite noun phrases that refer to entities you know and replace the 

           interpretation of each noun phrase by a  reference to that entity directly.

         

          For illustration, imagine that someone had said 61 followed immediately by 62:

          61. Claire and kent climbed Mt. Mckinley last summer.

          62. she photographed the peak, and he surveyed it.

Listeners, having heard 61, expect the next sentence to be relevant and perhaps refer to Claire, Kent, Mt, McKinley, last summer, the climb itself, or even the speaker. So on hearing 62, they search for noun phrases that refer to these entities and find she, the peak, he, and it. If Claire, Kent, and Mt. McKinley had been assigned the indices, then the listener can replace she, he, the peak, and it by their corresponding indices and buil the propostions:

         62'. Photograph (E9,E17) and Survey (E82,E17)

This strategy enables listener to restrict their search to a small number of noun phrases; Claire, Kent, the speaker, and the listener, for example, would almost certainly be referred to by the noun phrases she, he, I, and you. Any restriction like this should make it easier to perceive the individual words (see Chapter5). Moreover, Strategy 10 tie the sentence in with the on going discourse. One place strategy 10 may take on special importance is in with the ongoing discouse. One place strategy 10 may take on special importance is in selecting between alternative interpretations of a singel sentence (Winograd, 1972). Consider:

         63. John put the block in the box the shelf.

the could mean ceither the block in the bos was put on the shelf, or that the block was put in the box on the shelf. By strategy 10, listeners can decide which interpretation  was intended. If in that situation there is a block in the box and  no box  on the shelf, the first interpretation must have been intended; if there is no block in the box and the box is on the shelf, the second interpretation must have been intended. As springston (1975) has demonstated, listeners look for noun phrases that refer to recently mentioned entities first. Consider 64 and 65: 

          64. John said that Bill hit him.

          65. John said that Mary hit him.

On reaching him in 64, listeners are open to noun phrases referring to either John or Bill. Since him could refer to either, they must note that him cannot refer to bill for syntactic reasons-him would have to  be himself-and then settle on John. On reaching him in 65, on the other hand, listeners are open to references to either John or Mary, and him, because of its gender, can only refer to John. As expected, in Springston's study people managed to pick out the correct referent fir him faster in 65 than in 64, even though it refers to jhon in both sentences. In a series of similar comparisons, Springston demonstrated that listeners are faster at identifying a referent the more recently it has been mentioned and the more ways alternative candidates (like Bill and Mary in 64 and 65) can be eliminated on syntactic, semantic, or progmatic grounds.

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The function of language

The function of language

In language, function goes hand in hand with structure, for the structure of each sentence specifies the uses to wich it can be put. Napoleon was exiled to Elba, for example has the sturcture of a declarative sentence with Napoleon as subject and was exiled to elba as pradicate. Because if its structure it can be used to tell someone that Napoleon was exiled to elba. It cannot be used to tell someone that Benjamin Franklin invented bifocals, to thank the president for a pleasant evening, or to ask the waiter to bring another cup of coffiee. Like the bicycle, this sentence has a strukture specially engineered for a particular funcation, that of telling someone that Napoleon was exiled to Elba. For this reason, function is as important to the study of language as structure. The fundamental function of language is communication. in this activity there are three main elements:

1.  a speaker
2. a listener
3. a signaling system (for example, the english language)

Furthermore, the signaling system must be one that speakers and listeners are both able to use. Communication begins with speakers. They decide, for example, to import some information in a particular way. They then select a signal-a particular English sentence-that they believe is appropriate and utter it. The listeners receive the signal-the uttered sentence-and take it in for immediate use or for stronge in memory. with that, one stage of communication is complete. As this description shows, the function of language is intimately bound up with the speakers' and listeners' mental activities during communication, in particular with the speakers' intentions, the ideas speakers want to convey, and the listeners' and must get them to recognize these intentions . The sentences used must reflect these conceptions as well,. These three aspects of language function have been studied under the labels of speech acts, propositional contet, and thematic structure.

Speech acts

Each sentence, taken as a whole, is designed to serve a specific function. It may be mant to inform listeners, warn them, order them to do something, question them about a fact, or thank them for a gift or act of kindness. The function it serves is critical to communication. Speakers expect listeners to recognize the functions of the sentences they speak and to act accordingly. Whenever they ask a question, for example they expect their listeners to realize that it is a request for information. If the listener fail to appreciate this intention, they are judged as having "misunderstood" even though they may have take in everything else about the utterance. But just how is this function of sentences to be charaterized? And how does each sentences convey its particular fuction?

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Grammar

Grammar

In speaking or comprehending a language, people implicitly conform to a system that relates sounds to meanings. This has traditionally been called the grammar of the language. In speaking or understanding French, for example, people adhere to the conventions of the french language about wich combinations of words convey which meaning. Chien means "dog" and  C'ets un chien means "that is a dog," These conventions are said to be described by the grammar of french. This  view of a grammar is a far cry from the dull prescriptive rules most people are tought about what is and what is not "good grammar." The grammar of french is insrended to be a complete description of the language as it is actually spoken.

What does a grammar look like? Recently, especially under the influence of Zellig Harris and Noam Chomsky, many linguistis have argued that a grammar is a system of rules (see bach, 1974; Akmajian and Heny, 1975). The rules for English, for example, have the capability of "generating" all the legitimate sentences of english and no illegitimate ones. They can generate The sun is shining, but not Sun the shining is. One rule in English states that for the and sun to form a " noun phrase," they must be ordered the sun and not sun the, while another rule states that for is and shining to from a "verb phrase," they must be ordered is shinning and not shining is. There are grammatical rules to deal with there major aspects of language:

• Phonology: the sounds and their structure
• Syntax: the way wards combine to form sentences
• Semantics: the meaning of words and sentences.

Taken together, the rules from a complex system that is supposed to capture all aspects of language structure. This, of course, is only an ideal, for so far only partial grammars have been worked out for english and some other languages. What makes the grammar important for the psychology of language is the possibility that it will help in the study of speaking and listening. Grammatical rules, in effect, summarize regularities in the behavior of people speaking a language. Consider this approximate rule for the strukture of english noun phrases: As this  rulc states, people say the gazelle, an aardvark, and a toad, but not gazelle the, aardvark an, and toad a. This rule summarizes a regularity in people's productions of noun phrases, and the ideal grammar of english would summarize facts about behavior, they should surely help in the study of that behavior-in the study of speaking and listening. From the traditional point of view, grammatical rules should also take us a long way toward understanding the fundamental laws of thought and the nature of the human intellect. Noam chomsky (1965,1968) has tried to make much of this explicit in his discussion of competence and perfomance.

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The risks of undiscplined vocabulary usage

The risks of undiscplined vocabulary usage, in using the vocabulary must be proficient and there were not advanced , there is a right and not right dala use it and therefore I post an article, The risks of undiscplined vocabulary usage. Happy reading

The risks of undisciplined vocabulary usage

when you start learning the definitions of some new words, we would'nt advise employing them until you've heard them used many times, and have a clear and pricese sense of what they mean. otherwise you could sound like a moron. Or worse, a pretentions, insecure jerk. Here are some common faux pas and our suggestions for was to fix them.

• You might misprounounce the word. This is perfectly awful. The listener will get all caught up wondering if you made a mistake, if he should tell you, if you'll get irritated once he does, and thinking that perhaps you're not so well spoken after all. Before you know it, he won't hear a word you have to say.
• You might misuse the word. This is particularly egregious mistake. The listener will get all caught up wondering  if you know you made a mistake, if he should tell you, will you get irritated if he does, about how smart you are after all, why you are so insecure you have  to use words  you clearly don't understand-and before you know it, he won't hear a word you have to say. This is probably just as well, since you're not saying what you inted anyway.
• You night use the word technically correctly but in the wrong situation to the wrong person, thereby completely turnig of your listener. We're thinking of the doctor who was ambling through the park with a nonmedical friend along with each of their respective  children. The doctor's son suddenly banged his head on a tree, and after feeling the child's skull, the doctor commented somberly, " Yes, a significant hematoma ." The friend nodded, feeling significantly put off. The kid he thought, has a big bump. I need this? The doctor's friend promptly developed a hemicrania (a headache).

The Etiquette of Vocabulary Ignorance

You may give the impression that you are adevoted wordsmith, with an impressive vocabulary, thus opening the door for your listener to use some fancy words of her own that you won't understand. Then what?

• What to do when  someone uses a word you don't know, we sugget saying, with a forthright air, " i don't know that one. Could you define the word?" The implication is that you already know tons. The impression is that you're therefore not embarrassed to no know this one. And the result is that you will escape looking like a charlatan, by the integument of your teeth.
• What to do when your listener asks for a word meaning. Don't say, "you're kidding?!"or, "you don't know what that word means?". All of us have holes in our knowledge base. The name of the game is , Get past the moment qiuckly because your listener is probably a little embarrassed. Simply say, "it means..." Then don't add, "You see?" Assume he does. Just move on with your temarks.

Back to big tests: what if you don't know a word?

Vocabulary is usually  tested in the context of asentence. That's some help right there. The tick is, you have to find and use the clues. You have to be adetective. Here's how it works in the following sample test sentence.

• Criminals who show remorse are give lighter sentences than those who show no compunction.

Okay. So you  have no idea what compunction means. But look at the sentence. criminals  who show remorse  get a good thing. But those who show no compunction don't. So it stands to reason that remorse and compunction must mean pretty much the same thing. That's the clue. If remorse indicates must mean pretty much the same thing. That's the clue. If remorse indicates shame or goilt, then compunction probably does too. Therefore " no compuction" would have to mean no shame, no guilt

Another example:

peter hed often heard that his photographs were similar to those of a well-established photographer; and so he worried his new, innovative portfolio might also be considered:

(A) typical

(B) formaless

(C) derivative

(D) incompetent

(E) suggestive

Thank you for taking reading this article may be useful Bagir readers.

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Grammar

Michael Swan, seorang ahli bahasa, memiliki defenisi tentang Grammar, yaitu: "Grammar merupakan sekumpulan aturan yang menjelaskan bagaimana suatu kata digabungkan, dirangkai, ataupun diubah untuk menunjukkan berbagai jenis makna". Dan adapun pengertian Grammer secara umum yaitu himpunan dari aturan-aturan yang terstruktur yang mengatur susunan kalimat, frase, dan kata dalam bahasa apapun. Selamat membaca.

A. Defenisi Grammar

Bahasa adalah alat komunikasi  untuk menyampaikan pikiran, gagasan, konsep ataupun suatu perasaan yang terlintas dalam hati. semua bahasa didunia digunakan sebagai alat komunikasi, sebagai jembatan penghubung dalam kehidupan satu dengan yang lainnya, untuk saling memahami dan bekerja sama dalam segala aspek kehidupan. Begitu pula dengan bahasa ingris, bahasa yang bukan bahasa ibu kita. Bahasa inggris bukan hanya bahasa resmi negara inggris sendiri. Namun, bahasa inggris merupakan bahasa internasional yang digunakan sebagai penghubung antara negara dalam menjalin kerja sama di segala aspek, seperti pendidikan, ekonomi, politik, dan budaya. Beberapa negara, seperti Filipina, Kanada, Afrika selatan, Negeria, Irlandia, dan singapura, menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa sehari-hari, selain bahasa resmi negara mereka sendiri. Bahasa inggris juga dijadikan bahasa pengantar dalam dunia pendidikan. Di Indonesia, bahasa inggris sudah diperkenalkan sejak di sekolah dasar bahkan  taman kanak-kanak tentunya melalui media dan metode yang sesuai dengan usai pembelajar itu sendiri. Bahkan, beberapa sekolah dan pondok pesantren modern menggunakan bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa pengantar pelajaran. Berbicara bahasa inggris berarti tidak bisa dipisahkan dengan tata bahasa yang digunakan dalam bahasa inggris itu sendiri, yang dikenal dengan Grammar. Pelajar ataupun mahasiswa tidak akan asing lagi dengan kata grammar yang sengat erat hubungannya dengan bahasa inggris. Leech et al, (1982) memiliki defenisi yang berbeda tentang grammar: "Grammar merupakan referensi suatu mekanisme menurut fungsi bahasa itu sendiri ketika dipergunakan untuk melakukan komunikasi dengan orang lain. Grammar ialah aturan yang menggabungkan kata, ataupun aturan dalam menggabungkan bunyi suatu arti/makna." Dari beberapa pengertian di atas, bisa kita ketahui bahwa ketika belajar bahasa apapun, tidak hanya bahasa inggris, mempelajari tatanan bahasa itu sendiri sangatlah penting. Apalagi jika kita ingin membentuk kemampuang writting. Grammar adalah materi yang harus dipelajari secara khusus. Pengucapan bahasa inggris dengan menggunakan tatanan bahasa yang baik memberikan kesan yang lebih untuk si pembicara. Bahasa ingris merupakan bahasa yang hampir seluruh dunia mempelajarinya sebagai bahasa penghubung antara negara. Sehingga, mempelajari grammar sangatlah membantu dalam komunikasi antarnegara.

B. Fungsi Grammar

Bahasa inggris bukanlah bahasa ibu yang kita ucapkan sejak lahir. Bahasa inggris adalah bahasa yang kita pelajari karena tuntutan pendidikan ataupun pekerjaan, sehingga grammar memiliki fungsi yang sangat penting. Dengan belajar grammar, kita akan memahami sistem dari bahasa itu sendiri. Tidak hanya memahami bagaimana bahasa itu bekerja, tetapi dengan mempelajari tata bahasa suatu bahasa, kita akan lebih percaya diri ketika menggunakannya dalam percakapan ataupun penulisan yang sangat menitikberatkan pada tata bahasa itu. Dengan memahami grammar, kita dapat membangun peta konseptual mengenai struktur bahasa inggris, sehingga bahasa inggris yang kita gunakan dalam penulisan ataupun pengucapan akan lebih terstruktur. Grammar mempelajari tentang penggunaan bahasa yang efektif untuk melatih ekspresi kita dalam berbicara dan menulis. Selain itu dengan menguasai grammar, kita akan mampu menilai bahwa penggunaan bahasa ingris yang tidak sesuai dengan standar bukan berarti tidak sistematis. Akan tetapi, dengan mempelajari standar dan aturan baku tata bahasa, kita dapat menngunakannya dengan lebih fleksibel untuk mengacu pada kondisi atau gagasan yang lebih tepat. Belajar grammar akan sangat bermanfaat bagi kita yang akan berbagai ujian bahasa inggris, seperti TOEFL, TOEIC, atau IELTS. Ujian ini sangat penting dalam karier dan pendidikan kita karena melalui ujian TOEFL, TOEIC, atau IELTS akan tergambar kemampuan bahasa inggris yang kita miliki.

C. Manfaat Belajar Grammar

Belajar grammar, dalam hal ini grammar dari bahasa ingris itu sendiri, memiliki segudang manfaat. Di era globalisasi sekarang ini, bahasa inggris sudah mendominasi di semua aspek. Sehingga besar di negara-negara asia menggunakan bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa kedua setelah bahasa nasional mereka. Bahasa inggris merupakan alat komunikasi yang paling sering digunakan oleh dunia untuk berinteraksi. Bahkan lebih dari 100 negara menggunakan bahasa inggris sebagai bahasa pengantar. Manfaat belajar bahasa inggris meliputi grammar ataupun kemampuan lain seperti reading, wrtting, ataupun speaking adalah sebagai berukut.

1.Membuka jendela dunia, telah kita ketahui bahwa bahasa inggris digunakan lebih dari 100 negara, sehingga dengan memahami bahasa inggris dengan tatanan bahasa yang baik dan benar, kita akan dengan mudah memahami segala hal yang menggunakan bahasa inggris. kita akan dengan mudah menikmati bacaan sebuah bukuyang menggunakan bahasa inggris tanpa terjemahan. Kita dapat memahami alur cerita dari sebuah filem ataupun acara-acara seminar yang berbahasa inggris tanpa terhalang oleh kesulitan bahasa. Dengan demikian kita bisa membuak jendela dunia tanpa batas denngan bahasa itu sendiri.

2. Kemajuan karis, merupakan hal yang lumrah ketika suatu perusahaan melakukan tes bahasa inggris sebagai syarat penerimaan karyawan ataupun ketika ada tes untuk kenaikan tingkat. Materi TOEFL, yang meliputi, listening, structure, dan reading, menjadikan kemampuan yang harus dimiliki untuk bisa lolos ujian kenaikan jabatan pendidika. Dalam hal ini grammar, sangat dibutuhkan untuk meningkatkan pemahaman di soal-soal TOEFL, TOEIC, atau IELTS.

3. Memudahkan penggunaan teknologi, kini hampir setiap alat elektronik menggunakan bahasa inggris. Petunjuk di kemputer ataupun alat komunikasi bahkan alat rumah tanggapun menggunakan bahasa inggris. Ketika kita memahami bahasa inggris, maka dengan mudah kita bisa menggunakan dan menikmati teknologi yang ada.

4. Memiliki kesempatan kerja yang lebih luas, ketika seseorang memiliki kemampuan bahasa inggris yang baik, hal tersebut akan memudahkannya dalam pekerjaan. Mereka memiliki kesempatan kerja yang lebih luas dibandingkan mereka yang tidak bisa berbahasa inggris. Orang yang memiliki kemampuan bahasa inggris yang baik di butuhkan dibanyak instansi dan lembaga pendidikan. Mereka juga bisa membuaka tempat kursus karena, bahasa inggris sangat dibutuhkan, dari muali anak-anak samapai dewasa. Selain itu, peluang untuk bekerja atau kuliah di luar negeri menjadi lebih terbuka lebar untuk orang-orang yang menguasai bahasa inggris, yang meruapakn modal utama ketika akan melangkahkan kaki ke negara lain.

D. Tips Belajar Grammar

Jangan pernah ragu untuk mempelajari bahasa. Grammar bukanlah hal yang perlu ditakuti. Bukan pula materi yang seolah-olah akan menyita waktu kita untuk mempelajarinya. Beberapa tips berikut mungkin akan membantu untuk belajar grammar ataupun bahasa inggris, yaitu:

1. Melalui dari materi yang sederhana
2. Memiliki waktu khusus untuk belajar
3. Menabung kosa kata
4. Jadikan kamus sebagai teman
5. Tulis kata atau kalimat yang baru
6. Jangan pernah menyerah.

Grammar

semoga bermanfaat.

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Adjectives

Adjectives atau kata sifat dalam bahasa indonesia merupakan salah satu bagian dari parts of speech. Adjectives memiliki fungsi untuk memberikan sifat pada kata benda ataupun kata ganti. Adjectives digunakan sebagai penjalasan kata benda ataupun kata ganti. 

Adjectives (kata sifat)

1. Dalam bahasa inggris, kata sifat berada di depan kata benda/kata ganti

• I know she is kind person
• The expensive car passed in front of me

2. Kata sifat bisa pula diletakkan setelah subjek, namun harus ada to be sebelum kata sifat tersebut.

• Your are tired. Let's take a nap
• My mother is the most beautiful

3. Kata sifat mungkin menempati salah satu posisi:

    a. Attributives

       Yaitu meletakkan kata sifat sebelum kata benda/kata ganti. Dapat pula diletakkan di tengah yaitu antara articel dan kata/kata ganti.

• My mom buys a beautiful dress.
• We find new book behind the table.

    b. Predicatives

        Diletakkan setelah noun dengan di sela lingking verb sebagai object complement.

Predicatives terdiri 2 bagian, yaitu:

1. Subject complement 

• The car is expensive
• They are smart students   
• My grandma is old .

2. Object complement

•  I made my mom sad
• She makes her husban glad.
• My mom considered us lazy.

   c. Appositives/Postpositive

       Appositives adjectives diletakkan di tengah, yaitu berada di antara articel dan kata benda, dan berfungsi memberikan penjelasan tambahan subjek ataupun objek dalam kalimat.

•  A dilligent girl in the corner, Tia is my friend.
•  An old women who wear yellow dress, Mrs. Dina is my neighbour.
•  Dinda, the tallest girl in this class, looked for you two days ago.

Beberapa adjectives yang sering di gunakan:

• Kata sifat yang menunjukkan warna

         1. I buy an orange dress.

         2. My mom sews a purple curtain.

         3. You have white skin.

• Kata sifat yang menjelaskan ukuran benda/orang

        1. My uncle build a tall building in this city.

        2. Students have to pass the long bridge.

        3. My sister is painting a big house.

• Kata sifat yang menggambarkan kualitas/keadaan orang/benda.

        1. My father drinks a hot coffe.

        2. My brothes invites a beautiful girl to our house.

        3. Give some money to a poor man.

        4. Today is cool weather.  

• Kata sifat yang menjelaskan asal pembuatan benda.

        1. My mom wants to buy a silk dress.

        2. He is collecting a porcelain vase in his house.

        3. My aount hand a wooden fork. 

• Kata sifat yang berasal dari kata benda khusus suatu tempat (proper noun). Kata sifat ini disebut juga kata sifat asli.

        1. Do you know Washington Apples?

        2. A japanese lady is beautiful. I like her.

        3. An Indonesia flag is red an white.

Adjectives

Adjectives

                       

Semoga bermanfaat

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Belajar bahasa inggris

Untuk artikel kali ini akan membahas mengenai Ungkapan-ungkapan yang sering dipakai di dalam ruang kelas, bukan hanya di ruang kelas saja tetapi di didalam ruangan yang dimana pembahasannya itu membahas mengenai Belajar bahasa inggris, bukan hanya pelajar tingkat sd ataupun smp saja yang belum mahir menggunakan Bahasa inggris tetapi ada juga sebagaian tingkat Sma maupun Mahasiswa yang belum mahir menggunakan atau Belajar bahasa inggris baik ituu dasar ataupun yang sulit, bahkan sudah ada yang mulai lupa mengenai bahasa inggris tetaptnya cara mengungkapkannya, maka dari itu artikel kali ini membahas Ungkapan-ungkapan yang sering dipakai di dalam kelas, agar pembaca lebih mudah lagi untuk berbahasa inggris.

Ungkapan-ungkapan yang sering dipakai di dalam ruang kelas

Common Classroom Expression

Good morning, clas!                                            = selamat pagi!

Welcome to english 3                                           = selamat datang pada pelajaran B. inggris 3

Common classroom expressions

1.   Stan up, please!                                       Silahkan berdiri
2. Sit down, please                                        Silahkan duduk
3.  Come in, please                                        Silahkan masuk
4.   Are you finished?                                     Slesai?
5.  Please come forward!                                Maju kedepan
6. Could you repeat that, please?                      Dapatka anda ulangi?
7. Repeat after me!                                         Ulangi setelah saya (tirukan saya)
8. Close the door!                                           Tutup pintu
9. Open the window!                                       Buka jendela
10.  Close your book (s)!                                   Tutup buku
11. Please do exercise 5!                                    Kerjakan latihan 5!
12. Answer my questions!                                 Jawab pertanyaan saya
13. Return your friend's book!                            Kembalikan buku temanmu!
14. Raise your hand(s), please!                           Acungkan tangan!
15. Who knows?                                               Siapa yang tahu?
16. Me!                                                            Saya!
17. Raise your voice!                                         Angkat/besarkan suaramu!
18. Clean the blacboard!                                     Bersihkan papan tulis!
19. Get the chalk!                                              Ambil kapur
20. Does anybody (anyone) know?                      Apakah ada yang tahu?
21. Could you slow down, please?                       Dapatkah anda pelan-pelan sedikit?
22. Look at me!                                                 Lihat saya!
23. Listen to me!                                               Dengarkan saya!
24. Why don't you copy it first?                          Salinlah dahulu!
25. Excuse me. May i get my book first?              Maaf, bolehkah saya mengambil bukuku dahulu?
26. I'm sorry, I forgot                                        Maaf, saya lupa
27. Where are your friends                                  Dimana teman-temanmu?
28. They are still at home                                    Mereka masih dirumah
29. He is in the cafetaria                                      Ia di kantin
30. He is pretending to be sick                             Ia pura-pura sakit
31. What does "..." mean                                     Apa artinya "..."
32. What is the meaning of....                               Apa arti dari....
33.  (Are there) any questions?                             Apakah ada pertanyaan?
34. What is the difference between ".." and ".."      Apakah perbedaan antara ".." dan ".."
35. Try to look up the meaning in a dictionary!       Coba cari (artinya) di kamus!
36. On page 45 (please open to page 45)                Pada halaman 45
37. Just the same                                                 Sama saja
38. It depends on you                                           Terserah pada anda
39. Clear off (remove) everything from your desk(s)! singkirkan semua apa yang ada diatas meja                    anda
40. Erase the chalkboard!                                       Hapus papan tulis

There are many other words that are often used whenever using english in the classroom, semoga ungkapan-ungkapan yang sering dipakai didalam ruang kelas. dapat bermanfaat bagi para pembaca.

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Bahasa inggris

Assalamualaikum wr.wb., selamat siang kawan kali ini artikel yunipedia akan membahasa mengenai Bahasa inggris tepatnya Tuntunan dasar pemakaian kata kerja (Verb), mengapa? itu karena banyak diantara para pelajar baik itu tingkat Smp, Sma, maupun Mahasiswa. pasti masih ada yang belum tau atau belum paham menggunuakan Bahasa inggris dengan baik. nah maka dari itu saya akan membagikan artikel mengenai Tuntunan dasar pemakain kata kerja (Verb) I-II-III. Silahkan belajar.

Tuntunan dasar pemakaian kata kerja (Verb)

I                                          II                                          III

Study                                   Studied                                  Studied

Write                                   Wrote                                    Written

I.  I study                                     +  Saya belajar

    I do not study                            -  Saya tidak belajar

    Do I study?                               ?  Apakah saya belajar?

    Don't I study?                            ?  Tidakkah saya belajar?

II. He studies                                 +  Ia belajar

    He does not study                       -  Ia tidak belajar

    Does he study?                           ?  Apakah ia belajar?

    Doesn't he study?                        ?  Tidakkah ia belajar?

III. He studied last night                   +  Ia belajar tadi malam

      He did not study                         -  Ia tidak belajar

      Did he study last night?               ?  Apakah ia belajar tadi malam?

      Didn't he study?                         ?  Tidakkah ia belajar?

IV. He has studied                            +  Ia telah (selesai) belajar

      He has not studied                       -  Ia belum belajar

      Has he studied?                           ?  Apakah ia telah belajar?

      Hasn't he studied?                        ?  Belumkah ia belajar?

V. He will study                                +  Ia akan belajar

     He qill not study                            -  Ia tidak akan belajar

     Will he study?                               ?  Apakah ia akan belajar?

     Won't he study?                            ? Tidakkah ia akan belajar?

VI. Where did he study last night?        Di mana ia belajar tadi malam?

      Why didn't he study?                     Mengapa ia tidak belajar?

      Arabic last night?                          Bahasa arab tadi malam?

Gambar
Verb-Kata kerja

I.  I write                                          +  Saya menulis

     I do not write                                -  Saya tidak menulis

     Do i write?                                    ?  Apakah saya menulis?

     Doesn't he write?                           ?  Tidakkah ia menulis?

II. He writes                                      +  Ia menulis

     He does not write                           -  Ia tidak menulis

     Does he write?                               ?  Apakah ia menulis?

     Doesn't he write?                            ?  tidakkah ia menulis?

III. He wrote las night                          +  ia menulis tadi malam

      He did not write las night                 -  ia tidak menulis tadi malam

      Did he write last night?                    ?  Apakah ia menulis tadi malam?

      Didn't he write?                               ?  Tidakkah ia menulis?

IV. He has written                                +  Ia telah (selesai) menulis

      He has not written                           -  Ia belum menulis

      Has he written?                               ?  Apakah ia telah menulis?

      Hasn't he written?                            ? Belumkah ia menulis?

V. He will write                                     +  Ia akan menulis

    He will not write                                -  Ia tidak akan menulis

    Will he write?                                    ?  Apakah ia akan menulis?

    Won't he write?                                 ?  Tidakkah ia akan menulis?

VI. Please write a latter                           Tulislah surat

      Don't write a latter, please!                Jangan tulis surat.

Nah semoga bermanfaat bagi para pembaca. 

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